Non-platinum group metal electrocatalysts using metal organic framework materials and method of preparation

ABSTRACT

A method of preparing a nitrogen containing electrode catalyst by converting a high surface area metal-organic framework (MOF) material free of platinum group metals that includes a transition metal, an organic ligand, and an organic solvent via a high temperature thermal treatment to form catalytic active sites in the MOF. At least a portion of the contained organic solvent may be replaced with a nitrogen containing organic solvent or an organometallic compound or a transition metal salt to enhance catalytic performance. The electrode catalysts may be used in various electrochemical systems, including an alkaline fuel cell.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/479,796 filed Sep. 8, 2014, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/891,509 filed Sep. 27, 2010, reference of which is hereby made in its entirety.

GOVERNMENT INTEREST

The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and the UChicago Argonne, LLC, representing Argonne National Laboratory.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention pertains to electrocatalysts for use in fuel cells. More specifically this invention relates to electrocatalysts for use in fuel cells which do not contain platinum or other platinum group metals and methods of preparing such electrocatalysts using metal-organic framework materials.

BACKGROUND

This section is intended to provide a background or context to the invention that is, inter alia, recited in the claims. The description herein may include concepts that could be pursued, but are not necessarily ones that have been previously conceived or pursued. Therefore, unless otherwise indicated herein, what is described in this section is not prior art to the description and claims in this application and is not admitted to be prior art by inclusion in this section.

A fuel cell is an effective device for converting chemical energy to electrical energy through electro-catalytic reactions. The polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) operates at a relatively low temperature with the gas phase hydrogen as fuel and oxygen (air) as oxidant. At the core of a PEFC is the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) which includes an anode, a cathode, and a polymer electrolyte layer in between. Because of its relatively high conversion efficiency, low noise and low emissions, the PEFC is deemed to have substantial potential for use in a variety of applications, including automobiles and distributed power generation.

One type of PEMFC uses electrolyte that conducts alkaline ion such as hydroxyl ion, OH⁻. Such type of fuel cell is also known as alkaline fuel cell (AFC). AFC operates at a relatively low temperature with hydrogen or hydrocarbon as fuel and oxygen (air) as oxidant. Due to its high conversion efficiency, low noise and low emissions, AFC is deemed with high potential in a variety of power generation. Effective catalysts will be needed to promote the electrocatalytic reactions at both anode and cathode of AFC. Such catalytically promoted reactions will improve the overall fuel cell efficiency by reducing the overpotentials caused by the potential barriers from the electrochemical reactions.

At present, generally the most effective catalyst for electrocatalytic reactions utilizes a platinum (Pt) electrode catalyst supported on an amorphous carbon substrate. A typical Pt loading on the MEA surface ranges from about 0.2 mg/cm² to about 0.4 mg/cm². Because platinum is a precious metal with limited supply, its use as a catalyst adds a significant cost to a PEMFC system. Other platinum group metals (PGMs), such as Pd, Rh, Ru, etc., are being evaluated as a possible replacement for Pt. However, PGMs also generally suffer from high cost and limited reserves. As such, the use of PGMs in electrochemical devices such as a fuel cell typically adds significant cost to the system and represents a major barrier to commercialization. There is a strong need to find low cost materials as non-PGM catalyst to replace the usage of PGM materials therefore the overall cost of the fuel cell system.

Various attempts have been made to replace PGMs in fuel cells. These attempts have been mainly focused on developing replacement materials utilizing transition metal compounds. For example, it is known that molecules containing a macrocyclic structure with an iron or cobalt ion coordinated by nitrogen from the four surrounding pyrrolic rings have catalytic activity toward capture and reduction of molecular oxygen. Additionally, oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalytic activity can be improved for systems containing coordinated FeN₄ and CoN₄ macrocycles through heat treatment. Examples of a macro-molecular system containing FeN₄ and CoN₄ moieties include corresponding transitional metal phthalocyanine and porphyrin.

Methods of preparing non-PGM catalyst by incorporating a transition metal into heteroatomic polymers in a polymer/carbon composite are also known. Additionally, good ORR activity can be achieved by mixing amorphous carbon based catalyst with FeN₄ group and carbonaceous material or synthetic carbon support, followed by high temperature treatment in a gas mixture of ammonia, hydrogen and argon. An iron salt adsorbed on carbon in the presence of a nitrogen precursor can also produce a catalyst with good ORR activity. However, such catalyst material will generally decompose under acidic conditions to release iron, and thus is unstable for the electro-catalytic reaction within a fuel cell cathode. Additionally, because carbon does not carry the electrocatalytic activity by itself, using a carbon support dilutes the catalytic active site and results in inhomogeneous active site distribution and low activity in the final catalyst materials thus prepared.

In light of these considerations, there is a need to develop a low cost alternative to PGMs as the electrode catalyst for fuel cells and similar electrocatalytic applications.

SUMMARY

The present invention relates to electrode catalysts and methods of preparing electrode catalysts that may be used in an oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). The present electrode catalysts contain mainly transition metals, carbon and nitrogen but are free of precious group metals (PGMs). The electrode catalysts prepared according to the present invention have several advantages over various conventional electrocatalyst materials, including a high surface area, high active site density, uniform site distribution, and ease of chemical exchange. Additionally, the catalytic activity of the electrocatalyst materials can be further enhanced when heat treated in the presence of various chemicals.

Another implementation relates to a method of preparing a high surface area electrode catalyst free of platinum group metals (PGM) for use in a fuel cell. A metal oxide, organic ligand, and transition metal complex are mixed. A first heat treatment sufficient to melt the organic ligand is applied. The organic ligand is reacted with the metal oxide to form a metal organic framework (“MOF”). The transition metal is interacted with the MOF. A second heat treatment is applied, converting organic components of the MOF to a carbonaceous material. A catalytically active site is formed by reacting the transition metal with nitrogen containing moieties. Another implementation relates to an alkaline fuel cell. The fuel cell includes a cathode and an electrode separated by an alkaline electrolyte. The cathode comprises a non-platinum group metal (PGM) electrode catalyst derived from metal-organic framework (MOF) material having a plurality of pores. The fuel cell includes a non-PGM first transition metal catalytic center and selected from the group consisting of: Co, Fe, Ni, Cr, Cu, and Mn.

Another implementation relates to a method of catalyzing an alkaline fuel cell. A nitrogen containing electrode catalyst free of precious group metals (PGM) is provided. A metal-organic framework (MOF) electrode catalyst precursor is synthesized, the MOF electrode catalyst precursor including a first non-PGM transition metal complex, a ligand, and a metal oxide, the MOF having a plurality of uniformly distributed cavities. At least an organic portion within the plurality of cavities is thermalized to form a catalytically active site. The electrode catalyst is incorporated into a membrane electrode assembly of an alkaline fuel cell.

These and other objects, advantages, and features of the invention, together with the organization and manner of operation therefore, will become apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like elements have like numerals throughout the several drawings described below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic depicting a process flow for preparing non-PGM catalyst using metal organic framework materials as a precursor in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a schematic of molecular structures of selected imidazolate ligands for the preparation of transition metal containing metal organic framework materials according to the process of FIG. 1;

FIG. 3 is a schematic of molecular structures of selected pyrazolate ligands for the preparation of transition metal containing metal organic framework materials according to the process of FIG. 1;

FIG. 4 is a schematic of molecular structures of selected tetrazolate ligands for the preparation of transition metal containing metal organic framework materials according to the process of FIG. 1;

FIG. 5 is a schematic of molecular structures of selected solvents that can be used for solvent-exchange for the preparation of transition metal containing metal organic framework materials according to the process of FIG. 1;

FIG. 6 is a schematic of the lattice structure of a Co-containing metal organic framework material prepared according to Example 1;

FIG. 7 is a plot of the current density as the function of polarization potential measured by rotating disk electrode method for various samples prepared according to Example 9;

FIG. 8 is a plot of the electron transfer number as a function of electrode potential measured for the Co-containing MOF sample prepared according to Examples 1 and 3-6 and heat treated at 750° C. as described in Example 9;

FIG. 9 is a plot of the current density as a function of polarization potential measured by rotating disk electrode method for a series of Co-containing MOF samples prepared according to Examples 1 and 3-6 and heat treated at 750° C.;

FIG. 10 is a plot of the current density as a function of polarization potential measured by rotating disk electrode method for Co-containing MOF samples prepared according to Example 1 and Example 8 and heat treated at 750° C.;

FIG. 11 is a plot of the electron transfer number as a function of electrode potential measured for Co-containing MOF samples prepared according to Example 1 and Example 8 after heat treatment at 750° C. as described according Example 9;

FIGS. 12 a-12 e are schematics of the lattice structure of Co-containing metal organic framework materials prepared according to Examples 8, 3, 4, 5 and 6, respectively;

FIG. 13 is a plot of the current density as a function of polarization potential measured by rotating disk electrode method for a Co-containing MOF sample prepared according to Example 9 at 750° C., followed by various acid treatments;

FIG. 14 a is a plot of surface area of the nitrogen adsorption isotherm, and FIG. 14 b is a plot of volume distributions of various pore diameters for a Co-containing MOF sample prepared according to Example 1 with no heat treatment and various heat treatment temperatures; and

FIG. 15 is a plot of N X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) spectra obtained for a sample prepared according to Example 1 after heat-treatment at 500° C., 750° C. and 900° C.

FIG. 16 illustrates synthesis of MOF-based non-PGM catalyst precursors Zn(eIm)₂TPIP, Zn(mIm)₂TPIP, and Zn(abIm)₂TPIP. The iron complex, 1,10-phenanthroline iron(II) perchlorate (TPI), is evenly distributed throughout the lattice structures on the right and not shown.

FIG. 17 illustrates a comparison between Zn(eIm)₂TPIP and Pt/C of the current density as the function of polarization potential measured by rotating ring disk electrode method, as described according to Example 15.

FIG. 18 illustrates a comparison between Zn(mIm)₂TPIP and Pt/C of the current density as the function of polarization potential measured by rotating ring disk electrode method, as described according to Example 17.

FIG. 19 illustrates a comparison between Zn(mIm)₂TPIP and Pt/C of the current density as the function of polarization potential measured by rotating ring disk electrode method, as described according to Example 19.

FIG. 20 illustrates the number of electron transfer as the function of electrode potential measured for the samples Zn(eIm)₂TPIP, Zn(mIm)₂TPIP, and Zn(abIm)₂TPIP according to Example 20.

FIG. 21 illustrates the normalized kinetic current densities as the function of number of potential cycles for Zn(eIm)₂TPIP and Zn(mIm)₂TPIP, in comparison with Pt/C according to Example 21.

FIG. 22 illustrates current density as a function of electrode potential for Zn(mIm)₂TPIP.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS EMBODIMENTS

According to various embodiments, non-PGM electrode catalysts are prepared using thermally treated transition metal-organic framework materials (MOFs). In one embodiment, the catalysts are for a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). In another embodiment, the catalysts are for an alkaline fuel cell (AFC)

The prepared catalyst materials are characterized by various advantages applicable to electro-catalytic reactions, including a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and in particular the electrodes of the membrane electrode assembly (MEA). At the core of a PEMFC is the MEA, which comprises an anode, a cathode and a polymer electrolyte layer in between. At the surface of the anode, hydrogen is oxidized through the electrocatalytic process described by Equation 1.

H₂→2H⁺+2e ⁻  (1)

The protons thus produced are transported to the cathode side through the proton conductive membrane. At the surface of the cathode, oxygen is electro-catalytically reduced and subsequently reacts with protons from the Equation (1) to form water.

O₂+4e ⁻+4H⁺→2H₂O  (2)

The reaction described in Equation 2 is also known as the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). In general, the cathodic oxygen reduction reaction, such as that described by Equation 2, typically occurs at a platinum surface of an electrocatalyst. Molecular oxygen is first adsorbed on the Pt active site and is subsequently converted to water by capturing four electrons and reacting with four protons. Few catalyst materials have a comparable catalytic efficiency as that of platinum for the ORR. Those materials with similar catalytic activity usually belong to the precious group metals (PGM), such as Pd, Rh, Ir, Ru, etc., in addition to Pt. Accordingly, an aspect of various embodiments of the present invention is to prepare porous MOF materials that may be used as precursors for preparing non-PGM catalyst materials useful in the above reaction and applicable to various electrochemical applications.

MOF materials may be prepared according to the present invention using non-PGM transition metals that can serve as the catalytic centers. The applicable transition metals include Co, Fe, Ni, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ta, W, etc. Organic ligands are also utilized by converting the ligands as part of the catalyst structure through a thermal treatment process. In various embodiments, the organic ligands contain nitrogen within their molecular structure and include imidazolate, pyrazolate, tetrazolate, etc. Optionally, non-nitrogen containing organic ligands can also be used in synthesis of MOF materials that may be used as a precursor for electrocatalyst preparation. In addition to organic ligands, an optional templating agent may also be used for MOF synthesis. In one embodiment, the templating agent is piperazine. The solvents used in the MOF synthesis may also contribute as part of catalyst structure through a thermal treatment process. In various embodiments, the solvents contain nitrogen within their molecular structures and include dimethylformamide (DMF), diethyformamide (DEF), dimethylacetamide (DMA), pyridine, etc. Optionally, non-nitrogen containing solvents can also be used in synthesis of MOF materials that may be used as a precursor for electrocatalyst preparation.

In various embodiments, non-PGM electrode catalysts using thermally treated non-PGM transition metal MOF materials may be prepared according to the process depicted in FIG. 1. In particular, a non-PGM transition metal based MOF material is prepared using a chemical synthesis technique 100. The MOFs are produced through reaction between transition metal ions and organic ligands to form crystals with well-defined three-dimensional structures which are subsequently precipitated and separated from the solution. One commonly used synthesis technique is the solvothermal reaction in which a transition metal salt in the form of a nitrate, acetate, etc., is mixed with multidentate organic ligands in a solution containing an organic solvent. However, other techniques may also be applied. The MOF material produced during the synthesis 100 undergoes a thermal treatment 160 at an elevated temperature in an inert atmosphere, e.g., Ar or N₂, or in a reactive environment under a nitrogen containing gas such as NH₃, pyridine, acetonitrile, etc. The thermal treatment 160 also carbonizes at least a portion of the MOF material.

Optionally, between the synthesis 100 and the thermal treatment 160, a solvent exchange 120 may be performed. The solvent exchange 120 substitutes or replaces at least a portion of a first solvent, which enters the MOF in the synthesis step 100, with a second solvent. The second solvent is generally selected to promote the formation of electrocatalytic active sites during the thermal treatment 200. For example, if both the organic ligand and the first solvent do not contain nitrogen, it is a preferred approach then to exchange the first solvent with a second, nitrogen containing solvent before the thermal activation step 200.

Another optional step between the synthesis step 100 and thermal treatment step 160, includes a solvent replacement 140 where the solvent that enters the MOF during the synthesis step 100 is substituted or replaced with a metallic compound. The metallic compound could either be dissolved in a solvent or exist in liquid form by itself. The solvent replacement step 140 allows one or more different transition metals to be incorporated into the MOF material. Accordingly, a bimetallic or multi-metallic electrocatalytic center is formed upon activation via the thermal treatment 160.

A post treatment 180 can be optionally performed after the thermal treatment 160. The post treatment 180 can comprise one or more processes, for example, an acid washing, a ball milling, a second heat-treatment, etc, as described in greater detail below. The post treatment 180 may be configured to further improve the electrocatalytic activity of the thermally treated material.

The electrode catalysts prepared according to the process depicted of FIG. 1 are characterized by a high specific surface area when measured by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method. Although, MOF materials are generally a high surface area porous material, using the present processes, even after thermal treatment, which may be a high temperature treatment, a substantial fraction of the surface area can be maintained or even enhanced. As used herein, various embodiments of the MOF material and the prepared electrode catalysts may have a high specific BET surface area of between about 100 m²/g and about 3000 m²/g. In still other embodiments, the high specific BET surface area MOF material and the electrode catalysts have a surface area of between about 200 m²/g and about 1500 m²/g. A high surface area enables exposure of catalytic active sites to reactants under various applications, including fuel cell applications, thereby enhancing catalytic reaction performance.

The present electrode catalysts may further be characterized by high active site density. In general, MOF materials are built upon crystalline structures with a transition metal as the secondary building unit (SBU) that is coordinated by multidentate organic ligands. A high transition metal (M) to nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) atomic ratio (M/N/C), for example, a M/N/C between about 1/4/6 and about 1/4/100, can yield a greater number of catalyst sites per unit volume of the MOF. For example, in various embodiments, electrode catalysts of the present invention are characterized by a catalytic active site density of between about 10¹⁹/cm³ and about 4×10²¹/cm³. The improved ratio can be achieved when the MOF material is used as an initial, i.e., precursor material, for non-PGM catalyst preparation. Still another characteristic of the electrode catalysts is uniform catalyst site distribution. The MOF material typically exhibits a well-defined crystal structure with the transition metals and organic ligands evenly distributed throughout the framework. This well-defined structure leads to uniformly distributed catalyst sites after the thermal treatment process.

Yet another attribute of the present electrode catalysts is ease of chemical exchange. For example, the catalytic activity of a material can be further enhanced when heat-treated in the presence of other chemicals such as a precursor of another transition metal or another nitrogen containing organic compound. Because MOFs have a high fraction of pores with uniformly distributed cavities, this void space can accommodate different precursors such as one or more transition metals or a nitrogen containing organic compound via an efficient chemical processes such as solvent exchange. The added entities are also in immediate proximity of the transition metal SBU for effective formation of the catalytic active sites during the thermal treatment process.

The process depicted in FIG. 1 will now be described in further detail. In step 100, synthesizing or preparing the MOF based precursor, a number of general methods of synthesis of MOF materials of various structures and compositions may be applied. A commonly used technique is the solvothermal reaction, which may be utilized in the synthesis step 100 as generally illustrated below.

Specifically, as used in the synthesis step 100, a transition metal salt such as a nitrate, an acetate, a chloride, etc. is first dissolved in an organic solvent solution. Various examples of the transition metal salts include, but are not limited to, Co(NO₃)₂, Co(OAc)₂, Ni(NO₃)₂, Ni(OAc)₂, FeCl₂, Fe(OAc)₂, etc. The concentration of the metal solution typically ranges from about 0.1 mol/L to about 1.0 mol/L. More preferably, the concentration of the metal solution typically ranges from about 0.3 mol/L to about 0.4 mol/L.

The organic ligand is dissolved into the organic solvent to prepare the ligand solution, which may be performed in parallel with preparation of the metal solution. In various preferred embodiments, the organic ligands include the multidentate compounds containing nitrogen, such as imidazolate, pyrazolate, and tetrazolate ligands. The molecular structures of selected groups of compounds of the organic ligands are shown in FIG. 2 for imidazolate, FIG. 3 for pyrazolate, and FIG. 4 for tetrazolate. In a preferred embodiment, the imidazole compounds include 1H-imidazole, 2-methyl-1H-imidazole, 1H-benzo[d]imidazole, and the like. Optionally, organic ligands that do not contain nitrogen can also be used.

Various configurations of the MOF material may be prepared by modulating the concentration of the ligand. The concentration of the ligand in the solution is generally determined by the stoichiometric ratio to the metal content in the solution and the final composition of the MOF material. For example, if the final metal to ligand ratio in the MOF structure is 1:3, then the molar concentration of the ligand should be three times of that of the metal in the final mixture after the metal and ligand solutions are mixed.

The properties of the MOF material may also be adjusted through selection of the organic solvent used in preparing the ligand solution. A portion of the organic solvent is entrapped or contained within the MOF and can participate in the formation of the catalyst according to various embodiments, including thermal treatment. As described above, the organic solvent is the first solvent and in a preferred embodiment, the first solvent includes, but is not limited to, dimethylformamide (DMF), diethyformamide (DEF), dimethylacetamide (DMA), cynamide, pyridine, etc. In various embodiments, a templating agent may also be mixed in the solution for the preparation of the MOF. The templating agent serves as a coordination buffering ligand during the formation of the MOF and will be removed with the first solvent when the MOF precipitate is separated from the solution. In a preferred embodiment, the templating agent includes, but is not limited to, piperazine.

In the optional solvent exchange step 120, at least a portion of the first solvent contained within the MOF is replaced with or substituted by a second solvent. The MOF material contains uniformly distributed cavities that trap the first solvents at the end of the solvothermal reactions. The entrapped or contained solvents can participate in the reaction during the thermal conversion step by contributing to the formation of the catalytic active sites. The chemical composition of the solvent can be important to the nature of the active site. The solvent contained during the solvothermal reaction can generally be removed from the cavity using standard physical or chemical means known to those in the art, such as vacuum, vaporization through moderate temperature. As such, a second chemical moiety with a more preferred composition to form electrocatalytic active sites can be exchanged into the MOF cavities following removal of the first solvent.

Alternatively, the first solvent can also be substituted or replaced by a second chemical moiety by immersing the MOF material obtained from the synthesis 100 directly into the second chemical moiety, a process known as solvent exchange. In one embodiment, the contained solvent inside the MOF material is exchanged with a second solvent or chemical moiety which will promote the formation of the catalytic active site within the MOF. In a preferred embodiment, such chemical moieties include dimethylformamide (DMF), diethyformamide (DEF), dimethylacetamide (DMA), cynamide, pyridine, etc. The molecular structures of several representative solvents are depicted in FIG. 5. In general, any nitrogen-containing organic molecules with dimensions that can be accommodated by the MOF cavity can also be used and be substituted into the MOF material. The solvent exchange can be performed by using various methods known to those in the art, such as: immersing, agitating, sonicating and refluxing in the second solvent.

In another embodiment, one or more organometallic complexes or soluble metal ions may replace the first solvent or chemical moiety in the solvent substitution or replacement step 140. The organometallic complexes or soluble metal ions available for exchange have dimensions that are compatible with the cavities in the MOF material. The metal of the organometallic compound can be same as that metal in the SBU. Alternatively, the metal is different from the metal used in SBU. Examples of various suitable organometallic compounds include ferrocene, cobaltocene, Prussian blue, etc. and soluble metal salts include iron nitrate, cobalt nitrate, iron acetate, cobalt acetate, tantalum chloride, etc. After the chemical moiety exchange or substitution, the MOF material can be subjected to the thermal treatment 160 and conversion.

In the thermal treatment 160, the MOF material prepared as described above is subjected to a high temperature treatment to achieve thermal conversion of the MOF. The thermal treatment 160 partially decomposes and carbonizes the MOF material. The thermal treatment 160 forms the catalytic active sites through the reaction of the metal center, the organic ligand and optionally the solvent trapped with the MOF cavities through pyrolysis. Additionally, the thermal treatment 160 improves the electron conductivity of the framework materials by partially carbonizing the organic ligands so that a charge is more effectively transferred to and from the catalytic active site during the electrochemical reaction.

The high surface area of the MOF material is substantially maintained during the thermal treatment 160. FIG. 14 a shows the nitrogen adsorption isotherm as the function of the reduced pressure (P/Po) and the resulting surface area for three MOF material samples, a freshly prepared cobalt containing MOF material and the same MOF material after heat treatment at 750° C. and 900° C. The samples were analyzed using the BET method with nitrogen as the adsorptive. FIG. 14 b shows the fraction of pore volume as the function of pore size for all three samples. After thermal conversion at 750° C., the MOF material maintains more than 80% of the original surface area with an average pore diameter of 14.8 Å.

The thermal conversion of the MOF material is generally conducted in a controlled environment, such as a sealed reactor or a flow reactor surrounded by a heating element. In the preferred embodiment, the thermal treatment 160 is carried out inside of a tubular reactor under a constant flow of a carrier gas surrounded by a temperature controlled furnace. The thermal conversion temperature typically ranges from about 400° C. to about 1000° C. In a preferred embodiment, the thermal conversion temperature ranges from about 600° C. to about 900° C. In a more preferred embodiment, the high temperature thermal conversion temperature ranges from about 700° C. to about 800° C.

The time that the MOF material undergoes the thermal treatment 160 within the thermal conversion temperature range may be controlled and set to a predetermined duration. According to various embodiments, the thermal treatment time is between about 30 minutes to about 3 hours. In a preferred embodiment, the thermal treatment time is about 60 minutes to about 90 minutes. Additionally, the chemical composition of the carrier gas may be selected to achieve desired properties of the catalyst material. In various embodiments, the carrier gas is an inert gases such as Ar or He. However, in other embodiments, the carrier gas may be a semi-inert gas such as nitrogen. In still other embodiments, the carrier gas is reductive and contains nitrogen. Examples of reducing carrier gases include, but are not limited to, NH₃, pyridine, acetonitrile, etc.

Following the thermal treatment 160, the catalyst material may optionally undergo one or more post treatment processes 180. For example, in various embodiments, after thermal conversion, the material can be processed through a post-treatment step 180 to further improve the electrocatalytic activity of the material. According to one embodiment, the post-treatment process 180 can comprise an acid washing of the catalyst material. A variety of inorganic acids can be utilized to dissolve excess metals from the material, including metals that may be added during the solvent replacement step 140. This may be accomplished by immersing the thermally treated MOF material in the acid solution. Acid washing can be aided by the methods known to those in the art, such as sonication and agitation. In various embodiments the inorganic acid may include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitrate acid, and other acids capable of dissolving metals. The concentration of the acid can be in the range of about 0.1 molar to an undiluted concentration. In a preferred embodiment, the concentration of the acid ranges from about 0.5 molar to about 2 molar. The acid treatment process may be performed under ambient conditions or at an elevated temperature. In various embodiments, the acid treatment process may be conducted at a temperature as high as 80° C. The acid treatment process time ranges from about 0.5 hour to about 72 hours.

According to another embodiment of the invention, the acid washed material can be further thermally treated at an elevated temperature. This secondary thermal treatment may be carried out under an inert gas flow, e.g., Ar, He, etc., a semi-inert gas, or under a reducing gas flow. Additionally, the secondary thermal treatment may be carried out under similar temperature conditions and the same or a similar carrier gas as described above with regard to the thermal treatment process 160. A secondary thermal treatment of the MOF following the acid washing can further improve the electrocatalytic activity of the material.

In still other embodiments, following the thermal treatment 160, additional or different post treatment processes 180 may be performed on the MOF alone or in combinations thereof. Examples of additional post treatment processes include, but are not limited to, ball milling and a second thermal treatment in an inert gas or in the presence of ammonia. For example, in various embodiments, the thermally treated MOF material can be re-treated with one or more nitrogen-containing solvents or transition metal organometallic compounds as described by the solvent exchange 120 and the solvent replacement 140 processes, respectively, which is followed by another thermal treatment according to the thermal treatment process 160.

EXAMPLES Pemfc

The following non-limiting examples are presented to illustrate the present invention and to assist one of ordinary skill in making and using the same. The examples are not intended in any way to otherwise limit the scope of the invention.

Example 1

Procedure for preparing a Co-containing metal organic framework material. Co(NO₃)₂.4H₂O (3.115 g), imidazole (1.7 g), and piperazine as a templating agent (1.075 g) were added to dimethylacetamide (DMA) (65 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours and then placed in a Teflon-lined autoclave (125 mL). The autoclave was sealed and heated to 130° C. with an increase of 1° C./min, and held at 135° C. for 24 hours. After cooling at a rate of 0.1° C./min to room temperature, violet prism crystals were collected and washed with 3×10 mL of DMA. The crystal structure was verified by X-ray diffraction, as shown in FIG. 6.

Example 2

Procedure for preparing a second Co-containing metal organic framework material. Co(Ac)₂.4H₂O (3.735 g, 15.0 mmol), imidazole (2.04 g, 30 mmol), and piperazine (1.29 g, 15 mmol) were added to dimethylacetamide (DMA) (75 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours and then placed in a Teflon-lined autoclave (125 mL). The autoclave was sealed and heated to 130° C. with an increase of 1° C./min, and held at for 130° C. for 24 hours. After cooling at a rate of 0.1° C./min to room temperature, violet crystals were collected and washed with 3×10 mL of DMA.

Example 3

Procedure for preparing a third Co-containing metal organic framework material. Co(Ac)₂.4H₂O (0.623 g, 2.5 mmol) was dissolved in pyridine (7.5 mL) and a solution of imidazole (0.34 g, 5 mmol) in 3-methyl-1-butanol (MB, 7.5 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours to give a heterogeneous violet mixture which was then placed into a Teflon-lined autoclave (23 mL). The autoclave was sealed and heated to 140° C. with increasing rate of 1° C./min, and held at 140° C. for 24 hours. After cooling at a rate of 0.1° C./min to room temperature, violet crystals with a structure depicted in FIG. 12 b were collected and washed with ethanol.

Example 4

Procedure for preparing a fourth Co-containing metal organic framework material. Co(Ac)₂.4H₂O (0.623 g, 2.5 mmol) was dissolved in pyridine (7.5 mL) and a solution of imidazole (0.34 g, 5 mmol) in ethanol (10 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours to give a heterogeneous violet mixture which was then placed into a Teflon-lined autoclave (23 mL). The autoclave was sealed and heated to 140° C. with increasing rate of 1° C./min, and held at 140° C. for 24 hours. After cooling at a rate of 0.1° C./min to room temperature, violet crystals with a structure depicted in FIG. 12 c were collected and washed with ethanol.

Example 5

Procedure for preparing a fifth Co-containing metal organic framework material. Co(Ac)₂.4H₂O (0.623 g, 2.5 mmol) was dissolved in quinoline (7.5 mL) and a solution of imidazole (0.34 g, 5 mmol) in 3-methyl-1-butanol (MB, 7.5 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours to give a heterogeneous violet mixture which was then placed into a Teflon-lined autoclave (23 mL). The autoclave was sealed and heated to 140° C. with increasing rate of 1° C./min, and held at 140° C. for 24 hours. After cooling at a rate of 0.1° C./min to room temperature, violet crystals with a structure depicted in FIG. 12 d were collected and washed with ethanol.

Example 6

Procedure for preparing a sixth Co-containing metal organic framework material: Co(Ac)₂.4H₂O (0.623 g, 2.5 mmol) and a solution of imidazole (0.34 g, 5 mmol) in 3-methyl-1-butanol (MB, 15 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours to give a heterogeneous violet mixture which was then placed into a Teflon-lined autoclave (23 mL). The autoclave was sealed and heated to 140° C. with increasing rate of 1° C./min, and held at for 140° C. for 24 hours. After cooling to room temperature at a rate of 0.1° C./min to room temperature, violet crystals with a structure depicted in FIG. 12 e were collected and washed with ethanol.

Example 7

Procedure for preparing a seventh Co-containing metal organic framework material. Co(Ac)₂.4H₂O (0.623 g, 2.5 mmol) was dissolved in cyclohexanol (5 mL) and a solution of imidazole (0.34 g, 5 mmol) in cyclohexanol (10 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours to give a heterogeneous violet mixture which was then placed into a Teflon-lined autoclave (23 mL). The autoclave was sealed and heated to 140° C. with increasing rate of 1° C./min, and held at 140° C. for 24 hours. After cooling at a rate of 0.1° C./min to room temperature, violet crystals were collected and washed with ethanol.

Example 8

Procedure for preparing of an eighth Co-containing metal organic framework material: Co(Ac)₂.4H₂O (2.491 g, 10 mmol) was dissolved in pyridine (30 mL) and a solution of 2-methylimidazole (1.642 g, 20 mmol) in 3-methyl-1-butanol (MB, 30 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours to give a heterogeneous violet mixture which was then placed into a Teflon-lined autoclave (125 mL). The autoclave was sealed and heated to 140° C. with increasing rate of 1° C./min, and held at for 140° C. for 24 hours. After cooling at a rate of 0.1° C./min to room temperature, violet crystals with a structure depicted in FIG. 12 a were collected and washed with ethanol.

Example 9

A Co-containing MOF material prepared according to the procedure as described in Example 1 was ground using a mortar and pestle until a fine powder was formed. The sample was subsequently thermally treated in a tubular reactor with a 1 inch quartz tube placed inside of a variable temperature furnace. About 15 mg of the ground sample was placed in a Coors boat inside the reactor tube and heat treated at a fixed temperature for 1 hour under an argon atmosphere at a constant flow rate of 100 mL/min.

A series of samples were thermally converted at various temperatures between 500 and 900° C. Product yield after the heat treatment was typically between 40 to 60%. After the thermal conversion, the sample was recovered and ground again to obtain finer particles. Samples were prepared with about 5 mg of the material added to a 10 mL vial. An ink was prepared using 5% Nafion solution and methanol as solvents. The prepared ink was magnetically stirred for several days until it became smooth and easy to deposit in a glassy carbon (GC) electrode. The prepared ink was used to test the electro-catalytic activity of the material using the rotating disk electrode (RDE) technique. The ink was deposited on the GC electrode using a micropipette, targeting a weight per unit area of 600 μg/cm² of the dry sample. The catalyst ink is tested using 0.1M HClO₄ or 0.5M H₂SO₄ aqueous solution as the electrolyte, an Hg/Hg₂SO₄ reference electrode with a 0.5M H₂SO₄ solution, and a gold counter electrode.

The electrolyte was purged with Argon gas for at least 30 minutes, and the capacitive background current was first recorded in the potential sweep from −0.2 V to 0.98 V (vs. SHE) at the scan rate of 10 mV/second. The electrolyte was subsequently saturated by high purity oxygen for at least 30 minutes, followed by cathodic linear sweep voltammetry (CLSV) at the identical scan rate of 10 mV/second for ORR activity test. All the inks were tested at a rotation speed of 1600 rpm. The oxygen reduction polarization currents was corrected by subtracting the background current from that obtained from CLSV. FIG. 7 depicts the ORR activity as expressed by the rotating disk current density as the function of polarization potential for each of the samples pyrolyzed at the different temperatures.

An X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) study was carried out to characterize the transformation of key elements in the precursor during the heat-activation step. Shown in FIG. 15 is the N 1s XPS spectra taken for the sample prepared according Example 1 after thermal treatment at temperatures of 500° C., 750° C. and 900° C. Nitrogen remains mainly in the form of imidazolate with the N 1s binding energy at 397.3 eV after the 500° C. treatment. The nitrogen binding energy shifts significantly following treatment at 750° C., with two main peaks at 399.2 eV and 401.5 eV, and one minor feature at 405.3 eV, respectively. The first two peaks represent “pyridinic” and “pyrrolic” nitrogen in carbon and the third peak is attributed to nitrogen substituted into the interior, as opposed to the edges, of the graphene sheets. The relative peak intensities suggest that the majority of N is in a “pyridinic” form for the most active catalyst which is heat treated at 750° C. The intensities of “pyridinic” and “pyrrolic” nitrogen become closer after thermal activation at 900° C., although the overall N-content in the catalyst material decreases.

Example 10

A desirable characteristic of a non-PGM catalyst is the ability to reduce oxygen directly to water via the four electron transfer mechanism. Rotating ring disk electrode (RRDE) experiments give the number of electrons transferred during oxygen reduction, as a proportion between the disk current and the ring current, according to:

$n = \frac{4I_{d}}{I_{d} + {I_{r}/N}}$

Where n is the number of electrons transferred or selectivity, I_(d) the disk current, I_(r) the ring current and N the collection efficiency of the electrode. FIG. 8 shows the number of electrons transferred as a function of the electrode potential measured for a Co-containing MOF sample prepared according to the method of Example 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 and heat treated at 750° C. as described in Example 9. The number of electrons transferred was generally found to be between 3 and 3.6.

Example 11

The Co-containing MOF samples prepared according to the method described in Examples 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 were heat treated at 750° C. and subsequently tested by the RDE method, following the same conditions as described in Example 9. FIG. 9 shows the ORR activity as expressed by the RDE current density as the function of polarization potential for these samples, demonstrating excellent ORR onset potentials and catalytic activities.

Example 12

Co-containing MOF samples prepared according to the method described in Example 8 were heat treated at 750° C. and subsequently tested by the RDE method, following the same conditions as described in Example 9. The polarization curve generated from the RDE test was plotted with the results obtained from the sample of Example 1 following the same treatment and testing conditions. As can be seen from FIG. 10, the sample prepared according to Example 8 demonstrated improved ORR onset potential and catalytic activities. Furthermore, the electron transfer number at different potentials is also closer to 4, as is shown in FIG. 11.

Example 13

A Co-containing MOF sample prepared according to the method described in Example 1 was pyrolyzed at 750° C. After the heat treatment, 15 mg of the sample was placed in two different vials. 10 mL of 0.5 M H₂SO₄ was added to each vial. One vial was left for 72 hours at room temperature and the second vial was heated and held at 80° C. for 4 hours. A post treatment acid wash was performed to remove excess metal in the sample, exposing hidden catalytic sites. Additionally, sulfuric acid assists to sulfonate the carbon, which enhances the mass transport properties of the catalyst. FIG. 13 depicts that current density as a function of polarization potential for the non-treated sample and the post treatment acid wash sample, which indicates an improved ORR onset potential.

Alkaline Fuel Cell

In another embodiment, method for making a catalyst and a catalyst for alkaline fuel cells is provided. At the core of an AFC is the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) which consists of an anode, a cathode and a polymer electrolyte layer in between. At the surface of the cathode, oxygen is electro-catalytically reduced and subsequently reacts with protons from the equation (1) to form water

O₂+4e ⁻+2H₂O→4OH⁻  (1)

The reaction (1) is also known as the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR).

The hydroxyl ions OH⁻ thus produced are transported to the anode side through the alkaline membrane.

At the surface of the anode, the fuel is oxidized. For example, if the fuel is hydrogen, H₂ is then oxidized to water through the electro-catalytic reaction with OH⁻;

2H₂+4OH⁻→4H₂O+4e ⁻  (2)

If the fuel is methanol, CH₃OH is then oxidized to water and CO₂ through the electro-catalytic reaction with OH⁻;

CH₃OH+6OH⁻→5H₂O+CO₂+6e ⁻  (3)

The above reactions occur on the surface of the electrode catalysts during AFC operation. At present, the most effective catalyst for these reactions are made of platinum supported on the amorphous carbon. Another application that low-cost non-PGM catalyst can be applied for is the water oxidation reaction in a reverse alkaline fuel cell. In such application, hydrogen and oxygen will be produced when an electric potential is applied to the reversed AFC. Under such condition, the electrochemical reaction (1) and (2) will be reversed. Instead of generating electric current by electrocatalytically oxidizing hydrogen and reducing oxygen, the external voltage will lead a reverse reaction to generate H₂ and O₂ by consuming the electric power. For example, the reverse reaction of equation (1) will be called oxygen evolution reaction (OER).

As described above, a first embodiment relates to methods of preparing the electrode catalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction that contains mainly transition metals, carbon and nitrogen but free of precious group metals. The methods include a multiple-step process including the synthesis of metal-organic framework (MOF) materials containing transition metals and organic ligands with or without nitrogen-containing functional groups, optionally adding another one or more transition metals into the porous structure of the MOF materials in the form of metal salt or organometallic compound during MOF synthesis or through post addition, optionally adding other nitrogen containing compounds into the MOF through solvent exchange, heat-treating thus prepared MOF materials at the elevated temperatures in the inert atmosphere, optionally further heat-treat thus prepared MOFs at the elevated temperature in the presence of ammonia or other N-containing chemicals, optionally further treat thus prepared materials with acids to remove excess metals, optionally further treat thus prepared material under inert gas or nitrogen containing gas at elevated temperature. In the previous description, the applications of such electrode catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction in proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) were demonstrated.

Another embodiment relates to the synthesis of such catalysts for alkaline fuel cell (AFC). Catalytic activity in alkaline media such as KOH solution is demonstrated.

In one embodiment of the current invention, the MOF based catalysts demonstrated the catalytic activity superior to that of platinum in promoting the oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline media.

In another embodiment of the current invention, the MOF based catalysts demonstrated the catalytic durability superior to that of platinum during the oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline media.

In yet another embodiment of the current invention, the MOF based catalysts according to the current invention demonstrated superior catalytic activity than platinum for OER during water oxidation reaction.

Cathodic oxygen reduction reaction, such as that described by the Equation 1, typically occurs at the surface of platinum in the electro-catalyst. Molecular oxygen is first adsorbed on the Pt active site and is subsequently converted to the water by capturing four electrons and reacting with four protons. Few catalyst metals were found to have a comparable catalytic efficiency to that of platinum for the ORR. Those found with similar catalytic activity usually belongs to the precious group metals (PGM), such as Pd, Rh, Ir, Ru, etc., in addition to Pt. The PGMs generally carry high price due to limited reserve worldwide. The use of PGMs to the electrochemical device such as fuel cell will add significant cost to the system therefore creating major barrier for commercialization. It is highly desirable to find the low cost alternatives to PGMs as the electrode catalyst for fuel cell and similar electrocatalytic application.

Recently, there have been a number of activities in searching for the replacement for PGMs, mainly through the materials involving the transition metal compounds for AFC application involving carbon nanotube, porous polymer and transition doped carbon supports [1-4]. Though they demonstrated some encouraging promises, the performance of these new materials are still very limited.

Using MOF constructed through transition metal and N-containing organic ligand was first invented by Argonne National Laboratory. A three dimensional Co-imidazolate framework (Co-ZIF) was as the precursor for preparing non-PGM ORR catalyst through thermolysis. Furthermore, a low cost, one-pot synthesis method of preparing MOF based non-PGM electrode catalyst was also disclosed. The new method utilizes solid-state synthesis technique without the need of solvent thus related material and separation cost. A variety of MOF-based catalysts have been prepared by the “one-pot” synthesis and they all demonstrated excellent catalytic performances in the acidic electrolyte mimicking to that of PEMFC application. The catalytic activities of non-PGM catalysts, though very good, but still are inferior to that of Pt in the acidic media. Furthermore, their stabilities tend to be significantly lower than that of platinum in the oxygen saturated acidic electrolyte.

The catalysts investigated for AFC are made by one-pot synthesis approach. The catalytic activities of these materials were tested in alkaline media. We found that they have excellent activity towards ORR. Our tests showed that several of them have activities surpassing that of Pt under the similar test condition. Furthermore, we found that these catalysts also have significantly better durability and resistance to poisoning than that of Pt in the alkaline media during multiple voltage cycling experiment. In addition, their catalytic activity towards the water oxidation in the alkaline media also surpasses that of platinum.

The synthesis method for preparing MOF-based non-PGM catalyst for an alkaline fuel cell can, in one embodiment, be as described above. Further, in another embodiment, the method of preparing the catalyst comprises the following steps; I) chemical mixing—mixing zinc oxide (ZnO), multi-dente organic ligands with nitrogen preferably in the ligating functional group and transition metal (TM) complex, such as a organometallic compound or salt with or without TM being chelated by nitrogen-containing functional group, usually mixing the above compounds through mechanical means for blending such as grinding, ball-milling, etc., to produce a uniform mixture, generally in the form of solid; The multi-dente organic ligands include but not limited by imidazolate, pyrazolate, piperazine, tetrazolate and their derivatives shown by FIG. 2, FIG. 3 and FIG. 4. The transition metal complexes and salts include but not limited to iron phthalocyanine, iron porphyrine, phenanthroline iron perchlorate, iron nitrate, iron acetate, iron chloride, cobalt phthalocyanine, cobalt porphyrine, cobalt phenanthroline, cobalt nitrate, cobalt acetate, cobalt chloride, nickel phthalocyanine, nickel porphyrine, nickel phenanthroline, nickel nitrate, nickel acetate, nickel chloride, chromium phthalocyanine, chromium porphyrine, chromium nitrate, chromium acetate, chromium chloride, copper phthalocyanine, copper porphyrine, copper nitrate, copper acetate, copper chloride, manganese phthalocyanine, manganese porphyrine, manganese nitrate, manganese acetate, manganese chloride etc; II) first heat treatment—the solid mixture produced in the step I) will be heated, typically to the temperature of the melting point of the organic ligand, so that the ligand will be converted to the liquid state with intimate interaction with ZnO and TM complex. Simultaneously, the crystallization process will occur during this step where organic ligand reacts with ZnO to form MOF. TM organometallic complex will either be incorporated inside or outside of the MOF cage structure or, in some instances, react with the ligand as partial substitution of Zinc in the final MOF crystallite structure. Such heat treatment is usually conducted in the enclosed environment under a blank of inert gas for an extended period time to ensure the completion of crystallization reaction; III) second heat treatment—The TM-containing MOFs produced in the step II) will subject to a second heat treatment where the organic components in MOF will be converted to carbonaceous materials so that electro-conductivity of thus converted material will be greatly enhanced. Not being limited by theory, TM will participate the solid state reaction with the nitrogen-containing moieties either from the organometallic complex or from the ligand to form catalytically active site during such thermolysis/carbonization process. The second heat treatment is typically carried out above the carbonization temperature for the organics in an inert atmosphere. The heat treatment temperature ranges from 500° C. to 1100° C. and preferably from 700° C. to 1000° C. The inert gas can be selected from argon, helium or nitrogen. In addition to organics-to-carbon conversion, zinc will also be released from the product through vaporization, leaving the carbonized material with high porosity. After step III), the MOF material from step II is converted to the electrocatalyst which is typically in the form of amorphous carbon containing well-distributed transition metal and nitrogen; IV) Post treatment—the electrode catalyst produced through step III) can be subjected to an optional post treatment to further enhance the catalyst activity. The post treatment includes further modification of composition or morphology by chemical or physical means. For example, the acid wash can be applied to the materials from step III) to remove metallic TM or Zn produced through 2^(nd) heat treatment. Not limited by the theory, such acid wash could expose more active sites blocked by the metallic particles. A third heat treatment can be applied in the presence of nitrogen-containing gas, such as NH3 to further enhance nitrogen content in the catalyst after the acid wash. The heat treatment temperature ranges from 400° C. to 950° C. and preferably from 600° C. to 900° C. Not limited by the scientific hypothesis, such treatments can increase the catalytic site density leading to better electro-catalytic activity.

The catalysts prepared according to above method are tested in oxygen saturated alkaline solution using rotating ring disk electrode (RRDE) method. For the activity test, the linear sweep voltammogram method was used to measure the onset (E₀) and halfwave (E_(1/2)) potentials as well as the limiting current during the oxygen reduction reaction. The higher E₀ and E_(1/2) suggest that a lower reaction kinetic barrier and more active catalyst. For the durability test, the catalysts were subjected to multiple voltage cycling in an O₂-saturated alkaline solution in a wide cycling potential span. Another important performance parameter for non-PGM catalyst is the number of electron transferred during ORR reaction. As Eq. 1 indicates, the preferred electron transfer number for ORR is four which suggests a completely reduction of oxygen to water. The superior electrocatalytic properties of the catalysts according to the embodiments of the current invention can be further elucidated by the following examples.

EXAMPLES Afc

The following non-limiting examples are presented to illustrate the present invention and to assist one of ordinary skill in making and using the same. The examples are not intended in any way to otherwise limit the scope of the invention.

Example 14

The electrocatalyst precursor was synthesized by adding 5 wt % of 1,10-phenanthroline iron(II) perchlorate (TPI) (47.9 mg, Alfa Aesar) in the mixture of ethyl-imidazole (672.9 mg, Sigma-Aldrich) and ZnO (284.9 mg, Sigma-Aldrich). The mixture was combined, grinded, and sealed in an autoclave under Ar atmosphere. The autoclave containing the mixture was heated at 180° C. for 18 hours. The catalyst precursor thus obtained was named as Zn(eIm)₂TPI. (FIG. 16 a) The catalyst precursor, Zn(eIm)₂TPI, was then weighed and placed in a ceramic boat situated in the middle of a quartz tube furnace. After the tube was sealed and purged in Ar for 0.5 hours, it will be then heated to 1050° C. for 1 hour. After the heat-treatment, the sample was sonicated in 1 M H₂SO₄ for 0.5 hours and continuously agitated at room temperature for 20 hours. The acid-washed sample was then neutralized, dried at 80° C. under vacuum, and re-activated at 750° C. for 0.5 hours under a flowing NH3 atmosphere in the tubular furnace to give the final product, Zn(eIm)₂TPIP.

Example 15

The catalyst material, Zn(eIm)₂TPIP, prepared according to Example 15 was prepared into ink using 5% Nafion solution and methanol as the solvents. The prepared ink was magnetic stirred for extended period of time until it becomes smooth and easy to deposit in a glassy carbon (GC) electrode. The prepared ink was used to test the electro-catalytic activity of the material using the rotating ring disk electrode (RRDE) technique. The ink was deposited on the GC electrode using a micropipette with a weight per unit area of 600 μg/cm2 of the dry sample. The catalyst ink was tested using 0.1 M KOH aqueous solution as the electrolyte, an Hg/HgO reference electrode and a gold counter electrode. The rotating speed was maintained at 1600 rpm. The electrolyte was purged with Argon gas for at least 30 minutes, and a voltammogram was recorded for background subtraction. A second voltammogram was recorded after the electrolyte is saturated with oxygen gas for at least 30 minutes. FIG. 17 shows the linear sweep voltammogram (LSV) for the sample Zn(eIm)₂TPIP. For comparison, an ink of Pt/C catalyst was also prepared and tested in the similar manner. The LSV of Pt/C catalyst is also plotted in FIG. 17. As is clearly shown by this example, the non-PGM catalyst prepared according to current invention has higher onset and halfwave potentials than that of Pt/C therefore a better catalytic activity.

Example 16

The electrocatalyst precursor was synthesized by adding 5 wt % of 1,10-phenanthroline iron(II) perchlorate (TPI) (49.1 mg, Alfa Aesar) in the mixture of methyl-imidazole (656.8 mg, Sigma-Aldrich) and ZnO (325.6 mg, Sigma-Aldrich). The mixture was combined, grinded, and sealed in an autoclave under Ar atmosphere. The autoclave containing the mixture was heated at 180° C. for 18 hours. The catalyst precursor thus obtained was named as Zn(mIm)₂TPI. (FIG. 1 b) The catalyst precursor, Zn(mIm)₂TPI, was then weighed and placed in a ceramic boat situated in the middle of a quartz tube furnace. After the tube was sealed and purged in Ar for 0.5 hours, it will be then heated to 1050° C. for 1 hour. After the heat-treatment, the sample was sonicated in 1 M H₂SO₄ for 0.5 hours and continuously agitated at room temperature for 20 hours. The acid-washed sample was then neutralized, dried at 80° C. under vacuum, and re-activated at 750° C. for 0.5 hours under a flowing NH3 atmosphere in the tubular furnace to give the final product, Zn(mIm)₂TPIP.

Example 17

The sample prepared according to Example 16 was tested following the same procedure described in Example 15. FIG. 18 shows the linear sweep voltammogram (LSV) for the sample Zn(mIm)₂TPIP. For comparison, an ink of Pt/C catalyst was also prepared and tested in the similar manner. The LSV of Pt/C catalyst is also plotted in FIG. 18. As is clearly shown by this example, the non-PGM catalyst prepared according to current invention has higher onset and halfwave potentials than that of Pt/C therefore a better catalytic activity.

Example 18

The electrocatalyst precursor was synthesized by adding 5 wt % of 1,10-phenanthroline iron(II) perchlorate (TPI) (47.9 mg, Alfa Aesar) in the mixture of azabenzimidazole (H4abIm) (714.7 mg, Sigma-Aldrich) and ZnO (244.2 mg, Sigma-Aldrich). The mixture was combined, grinded, and sealed in an autoclave under Ar atmosphere. The autoclave containing the mixture was heated at 180° C. for 18 hours. The catalyst precursor thus obtained was named as Zn(abIm)₂TPI. (FIG. 16 c) The catalyst precursor, Zn(abIm)₂TPI, was then weighed and placed in a ceramic boat situated in the middle of a quartz tube furnace. After the tube was sealed and purged in Ar for 0.5 hours, it will be then heated to 1050° C. for 1 hour. After the heat-treatment, the sample was sonicated in 1 M H₂SO₄ for 0.5 hours and continuously agitated at room temperature for 20 hours. The acid-washed sample was then neutralized, dried at 80° C. under vacuum, and re-activated at 750° C. for 0.5 hours under a flowing NH3 atmosphere in the tubular furnace to give the final product, Zn(abIm)₂TPIP.

Example 19

The sample prepared according to Example 18 was tested following the same procedure described in Example 15. FIG. 19 shows the linear sweep voltammogram (LSV) for the sample Zn(abIm)₂TPIP. For comparison, an ink of Pt/C catalyst was also prepared and tested in the similar manner. The LSV of Pt/C catalyst is also plotted in FIG. 19. As is clearly shown by this example, the non-PGM catalyst prepared according to current invention has higher onset and halfwave potentials than that of Pt/C therefore a better catalytic activity.

Example 20

The number of electron transferred during ORR reaction can be measured by ring rotating disk electrode (RRDE) during LSV measurement. FIG. 20 shows the number of electron transferred for the catalyst Zn(eIm)₂TPIP, Zn(mIm)₂TPIP, and Zn(abIm)₂TPIP prepared according to Example 14, 16 and 18, respectfully. The numbers of electron transferred for all three catalysts are close to 4 through the entire polarization potential span, suggesting a nearly complete conversion of oxygen to water for all the catalysts.

Example 21

The kinetic current during a multiple voltage cycling is an excellent indicator on the catalyst durability. The kinetic currents of Zn(eIm)₂TPIP and Zn(mIm)₂TPIP were measured in an O₂-saturated solution after multiple voltage cycles from potentials of 0.0-1.2 V (RHE) at a scan rate of 50 mV s⁻¹ using RDE method. FIG. 21 shows the normalized kinetic currents of Zn(eIm)₂TPIP and Zn(mIm)₂TPIP taken after various numbers of cycles. For comparison, the normalized kinetic current of Pt/C is also included. The non-PGM catalyst Zn(eIm)₂TPIP and Zn(mIm)₂TPIP clearly show a significantly better retention of kinetic current than that of Pt/C during the multiple cycling experiment.

Example 22

The catalyst material, Zn(mIm)₂TPIP, prepared according to Example 16 was prepared into ink according to the description by Example 15. The ink was subsequently applied to the glassy carbon (GC) electrode and tested by RRDE method in oxygen saturated 0.1 M KOH solution. Instead of ORR, the electrocatalytic activity for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) was studied by increasing the scan range from 1.2 V to 1.9 V in reference of reversible hydrogen electrode potential. FIG. 22 showed cyclic LSV, indicating a substantial amount of hydrogen produced through water splitting occurred at voltage near 1.5 V, which is significantly better than many electrocatalysts including Pt/C.

The foregoing description of embodiments of the present invention have been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the present invention to the precise form disclosed, and modification and variations are possible in light of the above teachings or may be acquired from practice of the present invention. The embodiments were chosen and described in order to explain the principles of the present invention and its practical application to enable one skilled in the art to utilize the present invention in various embodiments, and with various modifications, as are suited to the particular use contemplated. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of preparing a high surface area electrode catalyst free of platinum group metals (PGM) for use in a fuel cell, comprising: mixing a metal oxide, organic ligand, and transition metal complex; applying a first heat treatment sufficient to melt the organic ligand; reacting the organic ligand with the metal oxide to form a metal organic framework (“MOF”); interacting the transition metal with the MOF; applying a second heat treatment, converting organic components of the MOF to a carbonaceous material; and forming a catalytically active site by reacting the transition metal with nitrogen containing moieties.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein mixing comprises mechanically mixing solid metal oxide, solid organic ligand, and solid transition metal complex.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the metal oxide is zinc oxide.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein interacting the transition metal comprises incorporating the transition metal into the MOF structure.
 5. The method of claim 1, further including a post-treatment after the second heat treatment comprising modifying the catalyst to enhance catalytic activity.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the post-treatment includes a third heat treatment.
 7. The method of claim 6, further comprises the third heat treatment applied in the presence of a nitrogen-containing gas.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the transition metal complex is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal salt and an organometallic compound.
 9. The method of claim 7, wherein organometallic compound is selected from the group consisting of: iron phthalocyanine, iron porphyrine, phenanthroline iron perchlorate, cobalt phthalocyanine, cobalt porphyrine, cobalt phenanthroline, nickel phthalocyanine, nickel porphyrine, nickel phenanthroline, chromium phthalocyanine, chromium porphyrine, copper phthalocyanine, copper porphyrine, manganese phthalocyanine, manganese porphyrine.
 10. The method of claim 7, wherein the second metal salt is selected from the group consisting of: a metal nitrate, a metal acetate, and a metal chloride including iron nitrate, iron acetate, iron chloride, cobalt nitrate, cobalt acetate, cobalt chloride, nickel nitrate, nickel acetate, nickel chloride, chromium nitrate, chromium acetate, chromium chloride, copper nitrate, copper acetate, copper chloride, manganese nitrate, manganese acetate, manganese chloride.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein forming a catalytically active site comprises infiltrating a plurality of pores of the MOF and form a plurality of monometallic and bimetallic transition metal containing electrocatalytic active sites.
 12. The method of claim 3, wherein the at least one organic ligand comprises a plurality of nitrogen containing ligands selected from the group consisting of: imidazolate, pyrazolate, piperazine, tetrazolate, and combinations thereof.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the first heat treatment is applied for a first predetermined period of between about 60 minutes and about 20 hours.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the second heat treatment is applied for a second predetermined period of between about 30 minutes and about 90 minutes.
 15. The method of claim 1 further comprising subjecting the high surface area electrode catalyst to an acid washing process with an inorganic acid to remove a portion of the first transition metal from the MOF material, wherein the acid washing process improves the electrochemical activity of the high surface area electrode catalyst.
 16. An alkaline fuel cell comprising: a cathode and an electrode separated by an alkaline electrolyte, the cathode comprising a non-platinum group metal (PGM) electrode catalyst derived from metal-organic framework (MOF) material having a plurality of pores, and including a non-PGM first transition metal catalytic center and selected from the group consisting of: Co, Fe, Ni, Cr, Cu, and Mn.
 17. The alkaline fuel cell non-PGM electrode catalyst of claim 16, further comprising: a nitrogen-containing organic solvent configured to react with the first transition metal; and an organometallic compound or a metal salt, the organometallic compound and the metal salt containing a second transition metal configured to react with the multidentate ligand and configured to form a plurality of monometallic and bimetallic catalytic active sites under the high temperature thermal treatment.
 18. The alkaline fuel cell of claim 17, wherein the catalyst comprises a lattice structure wherein the plurality of monometallic and bimetallic catalytic active sites are distributed throughout the lattice structure.
 19. A method of catalyzing an alkaline fuel cell, comprising: providing a nitrogen containing electrode catalyst free of precious group metals (PGM) synthesizing a metal-organic framework (MOF) electrode catalyst precursor, the MOF electrode catalyst precursor including a first non-PGM transition metal complex, a ligand, and a metal oxide, the MOF having a plurality of uniformly distributed cavities; thermolyzing at least an organic portion within the plurality of cavities to form a catalytically active site; and incorporating the electrode catalyst into a membrane electrode assembly of an alkaline fuel cell.
 20. The method of catalyzing an alkaline fuel cell of claim 19, wherein the synthesis of the MOF further comprises: mixing the metal oxide, the ligand, and the transition metal complex; applying a first heat treatment sufficient to melt the ligand; and reacting the ligand with the metal oxide to form a metal organic framework 